EEG in the FEAB model: measurement of electroencephalographical burst suppression and seizure liability in safety pharmacology.

INTRODUCTION: The purpose of this study was to explore the integration of electroencephalographical (EEG) measurements into the fentanyl/etomidate-anaesthetised Beagle (FEAB) model in order to detect burst suppression and/or seizure development caused by compounds, prior to new molecular entity (NME) declaration. Detecting such unfavourable side effects prevents their being found in conscious animals at a later stage of safety evaluation. In addition, this has the advantage of performing safety studies on the three vital organ systems (cardiovascular system, respiratory system and central nervous system) within one and the same animal model. METHODS: Dogs were anaesthetized and instrumented according to the FEAB model requirements, and in addition three needle electrodes were placed on the cranium and a one lead EEG signal was measured. The raw signal was analysed by the Narcotrend® (MonitorTechnik, Bad Bramstedt, Germany) for depth of anaesthesia registration, visually analysed for burst suppression ratio calculation after different anaesthetics (pentobarbital and etomidate), and spiking and seizure activity were quantified after intravenous administration of different proconvulsant agents: pentylenetetrazole (PTZ), bicuculline (BCC), bupropion (BUP) and pilocarpine (PIL). RESULTS: High doses of pentobarbital (60 mg/kg over 10 min) and etomidate (6 mg/kg over 10 min) induced dose-dependent burst suppression of 98 ± 2% and 61 ± 16%, respectively. Infusions of PTZ (1.5mg/kg/min), BCC (0.0625 mg/kg/min), BUP (0.5mg/kg/min) and PIL (5mg/kg/min) induced dose-dependent spiking and seizures: the thresholds were 34 ± 2, 0.15 ± 0.03, 10.0 ± 1 and 144 ± 9 mg/kg, respectively. In PTZ-treated dogs, spiking and seizures could be abolished with diazepam (2mg/kg i.v.) or with propofol (4 mg/kg i.v.). DISCUSSION: The present study showed that a one lead EEG can be used reliably in the FEAB model to estimate the depth of anaesthesia, and to detect burst suppression and seizure risk in safety pharmacology studies.

The Electro-Mechanical window: a risk marker for Torsade de Pointes in a canine model of drug induced arrhythmias.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: In cardiovascular pharmacology, electrical and mechanical events can be distinguished, and the phrase 'electro-mechanical window' (EMw) describes the temporal difference between these events. We studied whether changes in EMw have potential predictive value for the occurrence of arrhythmias in fentanyl/etomidate-anaesthetized beagle (FEAB) dogs. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH: The EMw was calculated as differences between the QT interval and QLVP(end) in FEAB dogs during atrial pacing, treatment with isoprenaline or atropine, body temperature changes and induction of Torsade de Pointes (TdP) in an LQT1 model. KEY RESULTS: The electrical systole (QT interval) was shorter than the duration of the mechanical event (QLVP(end) ), providing a positive EMw. Atrial pacing, atropine or body temperature changes had no major effects on EMw, despite large changes in QT duration. However, ß-adrenoceptor stimulation (with isoprenaline) decreased the EMw (from 90 to 5 ms) and in combination with HMR1556, a blocker of the slowly activating potassium current (I(Ks) ), induced a large negative EMw (-109ms) and TdP. Prevention of TdP by atenolol or verapamil was associated with a less negative EMw (-23 to -16ms). Mexiletine, a poorly effective long QT treatment, did not affect the EMw or prevent TdP induction. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS: The EMw is a marker, other than QT prolongation, of TdP risk in the FEAB model. Therefore, we suggest examining the EMw as a risk marker in cardiovascular safety studies and as a potential biomarker to improve clinical management of long QT syndrome patients, especially in patients with borderline QT prolongation.

The effect of changes in core body temperature on the QT interval in beagle dogs: a previously ignored phenomenon, with a method for correction.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Body core temperature (Tc) changes affect the QT interval, but correction for this has not been systematically investigated. It may be important to correct QT intervals for drug-induced changes in Tc. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH: Anaesthetized beagle dogs were artificially cooled (34.2 degrees C) or warmed (42.1 degrees C). The relationship between corrected QT intervals (QTcV; QT interval corrected according to the Van de Water formula) and Tc was analysed. This relationship was also examined in conscious dogs where Tc was increased by exercise. KEY RESULTS: When QTcV intervals were plotted against changes in Tc, linear correlations were observed in all individual dogs. The slopes did not significantly differ between cooling (-14.85+/-2.08) or heating (-13.12+/-3.46) protocols. We propose a correction formula to compensate for the influence of Tc changes and standardize the QTcV duration to 37.5 degrees C: QTcVcT (QTcV corrected for changes in core temperature)=QTcV-14 (37.5 - Tc). Furthermore, cooled dogs were re-warmed (from 34.2 to 40.0 degrees C) and marked QTcV shortening (-29%) was induced. After Tc correction, using the above formula, this decrease was abolished. In these re-warmed dogs, we observed significant increases in T-wave amplitude and in serum [K(+)] levels. No arrhythmias or increase in pro-arrhythmic biomarkers were observed. In exercising dogs, the above formula completely compensated QTcV for the temperature increase. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS: This study shows the importance of correcting QTcV intervals for changes in Tc, to avoid misleading interpretations of apparent QTcV interval changes. We recommend that all ICH S7A, conscious animal safety studies should routinely measure core body temperature and correct QTcV appropriately, if body temperature and heart rate changes are observed.

Factors that determine acetylcholine responsiveness of guinea pig tracheal tubes.

Acetylcholine administered to the inside of epithelium-denuded tracheal tubes did cause a potent contraction (2486+/-120 mg). In contrast, a response was hardly observed in tissues with an intact epithelial layer (674+/-81 mg), which was due to both the synthesis of nitric oxide and the activity of acetylcholinesterase, since the contractions to acetylcholine were significantly enhanced after preincubation with N(omega)-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester (L-NAME) or physostigmine (1374+/-65 and 1120+/-65 mg, respectively). In addition, the suppressive effect was caused by the barrier function of the epithelial layer, since preincubation of epithelium-denuded tissues with physostigmine significantly increased the pD2 value for acetylcholine (7.48+/-0.04) compared to intact tissues preincubated with physostigmine (6.32+/-0.10) and epithelium-denuded preparations without physostigmine (6.37+/-0.06). Increasing concentrations of physostigmine administered to the inside of tissues with epithelium did induce a potent spontaneous contraction (1440+/-350 mg) that was prevented by atropine. In contrast to what was expected, the contractile response was diminished in tracheal tubes without epithelium (665+/-221 mg). It is concluded that contractions of epithelium-denuded tissues are more pronounced to exogenous than to endogenous acetylcholine, and that the production and breakdown of this neurotransmitter is very rapid in intact guinea pig airways. Moreover, the release of nitric oxide and the barrier function of the epithelium did suppress the responsiveness to acetylcholine.

Antibody to very late activation antigen 4 prevents interleukin-5-induced airway hyperresponsiveness and eosinophil infiltration in the airways of guinea pigs.

This study examines the effect of monoclonal antibody to very late activation antigen-4 (VLA-4) on IL5-induced airway hyperresponsiveness in vivo and eosinophil accumulation into guinea pig airways. IL5 has been shown to be important in the development of airway hyperresponsiveness and eosinophil accumulation in the guinea pig. Eosinophils, unlike neutrophils, express VLA-4 which mediates the adhesion to vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 on endothelial cells. Thus VLA-4 seems to be an important adhesion molecule in the infiltration of eosinophils from the vasculature into the airway tissue. In addition, it has been shown that IL5 activates VLA-4 on eosinophils to facilitate their adhesion. In the present study, IL5 (1 microg, twice on one day) or vehicle were administered intranasally. Monoclonal antibody (mAb) to VLA-4 (HP1/2) or the isotype-matched control mAb (1E6) were injected 1 hour before each IL5 or vehicle treatment at a dose of 2.5 mg/kg body weight. The next day in vivo bronchial reactivity, eosinophil number in bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) fluid, and eosinophil peroxidase (EPO) activity in cell-free BAL fluid were determined. IL5 induces an increase in bronchial reactivity to histamine, which is associated with an accumulation of eosinophils into BAL fluid (control: 12 (5 to 42) x 10(5) cells and IL5: 69 (11 to 99) x 10(5) cells, p < 0.05) and an increase of 35% +/- 14% in EPO activity in cell-free BAL fluid. Intravenous administration of anti-VLA-4 mAb, but not of the control antibody, completely inhibits the bronchial hyperresponsiveness as well as the airway eosinophilia found after intraairway application of IL5. HP1/2 also suppresses the IL5-induced increase in EPO activity in cell-free BAL fluid. In conclusion, for the development of IL5-induced airway hyperresponsiveness in the guinea pig, the VLA-4-dependent infiltration and activation of eosinophils in the bronchial tissue seems to be essential.

Bovine tracheal responsiveness in vitro: role of the epithelium and nitric oxide.

Airway epithelium releases inhibitory factors, such as nitric oxide (NO) and prostaglandin E2 (PGE2), which may counteract bronchoconstriction. We investigated whether epithelium-derived inhibitory substances exert a crucial influence on bovine tracheal responsiveness in vitro. Isotonic and isometric contractions in response to histamine of intact and epithelium-denuded tracheal smooth muscle strips were compared. In addition, the effects of L-arginine (L-arg), N(G)-nitro-L-arginine methyl esther (L-NAME), and N(G)-monomethyl L-arginine (L-NMMA) on histamine responsiveness were investigated. The release of NO and PGE2 from tracheal epithelium was measured. Removal of the epithelium from tracheal smooth muscle strips did not change the negative log of the concentration of histamine producing half the maximal effect (pD2) or the maximal effect (Emax). Incubation of the tissues for 25 min with L-arg or L-NAME did not influence basal tone or the contractions induced by histamine. However, incubation with L-NMMA increased the basal tone and caused a slight hyporesponsiveness to histamine. S-nitroso-N-acetyl-penicillamine (SNAP, a direct NO donor) reversed the contraction induced by histamine in a concentration-dependent manner. Stimulation of the epithelial layer by 0.1 microM histamine increased the release of NO 3-4 fold compared to basal levels; this effect was completely inhibited in the presence of L-NMMA. In addition, 1 mM histamine caused a significant increase in the release of PGE2 from the epithelial tissue. In conclusion, no functional inhibitory influence of the epithelium can be identified in bovine airways. The S-nitroso-N-acetyl-penicillamine-induced relaxation demonstrates the presence of a nitric oxide sensitive pathway in bovine airways. However, the amounts of nitric oxide and prostaglandin E2 released from bovine tracheal epithelium are probably too low to exert a significant effect on the histamine-induced contractions.

Peroxynitrite induces airway hyperresponsiveness in guinea pigs in vitro and in vivo.

Peroxynitrite (ONOO-) is a cytotoxic product of the rapid reaction between nitric oxide and superoxide that may initiate inflammation. Isolated perfused tracheas from guinea pigs were incubated from the mucosal side for 15 min with peroxynitrite (1 to 100 muM). Thereafter, concentration-response curves to histamine and methacholine were constructed on the preparations. Peroxynitrite (10 muM) caused a significant hyperresponsiveness; the maximal contractions in response to histamine and methacholine were enhanced by 30% and 40%, respectively. In the peroxynitrite-treated group, clear epithelial damage as well as eosinophil destruction were detected. Moreover, 3, 5, and 10 days after intratracheal instillation of peroxynitrite (100 nmol), a significant rise in pulmonary resistance to histamine of anesthetized animals was observed. It is suggested that the generation of peroxynitrite from nitric oxide superoxide radicals during inflammatory processes induces epithelial damage, mediator release, and hence airway hyperresponsiveness. These findings may have clinical implications, because airway inflammation, epithelial damage, and hyperresponsiveness are characteristic features in patients suffering from asthma.

Induction of guinea pig airway hyperresponsiveness by inactivation of guanylate cyclase.

To examine the role of cyclic 3', 5'-guanosine monophosphate (cGMP) in airway responsiveness the effects of substances known to interfere with nitric oxide (NO) or cGMP were investigated on guinea pig airways. Using a perfused organ bath system, it was possible to apply the chemicals from either the serosal or the mucosal side independently. In addition, levels of intracellular cGMP were determined in tissues after various treatments. Sodium nitroprusside (a donor of NO), zaprinast (a specific inhibitor of cGMP phosphodiesterase) and 8-bromo-cGMP (8-Br-cGMP) caused a concentration-dependent relaxation of guinea pig trachea. These results indicate that cGMP is an important second messenger mediating tracheal relaxations. The above mentioned drugs caused a more profound relaxation when applied to the serosal side compared to the mucosal side, suggesting a barrier function of the epithelial layer. Incubation on the mucosal side of the tissues with 100 microM pyrogallol (a generator of superoxide that may inactivate NO) increased the contractile response to histamine at concentrations 0.3-3.2 microM (P < 0.05). Treatment of the preparations with 1 mM cystamine (an inactivator of guanylate cyclase) caused a 5-fold increase in the sensitivity to histamine (P < 0.05), indicating the involvement of the NO/cGMP pathway in the development of airway hyperresponsiveness. Incubation of the tissues with 100 microM histamine elevated the intracellular cGMP levels 10-fold; this effect was completely prevented by incubation of the tissues with methylene blue (a potent inactivator of guanylate cyclase). Mucosal incubation of the tracheal tubes with 10 microM methylene blue induced an 8-fold increase in sensitivity to histamine (P < 0.01) and the Emax was slightly increased. 25 min after instillation of 0.4 mumol methylene blue into the airways of anaesthetized guinea pigs, the lung resistance in response to histamine was elevated up to 395 +/- 82% (P < 0.001). The present study revealed that inactivation of NO or guanylate cyclase enhances the histamine-induced contractions of guinea pig tracheas. Therefore, it is suggested that the NO/cGMP pathway may be implicated in the pathogenesis of airway hyperresponsiveness and that drugs which enhance cGMP levels in airway smooth muscle may be of significance in the treatment of airway obstruction and enhanced reactivity.

Role of interleukin-5 and substance P in development of airway hyperreactivity to histamine in guinea-pigs.

In this study, we examined the mechanism by which bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) cells induced hyperreactivity of the trachea in vitro. As both interleukin-5 (IL-5) and substance P (SP) appeared to be involved, the effect of these mediators was examined in vivo. Tracheae were incubated with BAL cells from ovalbumin or saline challenged animals, and from naive animals, in the absence or presence of either IL-5, SP, or both. In addition, the effect of intra-airway application of IL-5, SP, both, or vehicle on tracheal hyperreactivity was examined. Incubation of tracheae with BAL cells from ovalbumin challenged animals induced an increase (30 +/- 10%) in the maximal response to histamine. The hyperreactivity could be completely inhibited by co-incubation with 5-lipoxygenase inhibitor, AA861. The hyperreactivity could be mimicked by incubation of tracheae with BAL cells from naive animals in the presence of IL-5 and SP. After in vivo administration of either IL-5 or SP, maximal responses to histamine were increased and amounted to 105 +/- 35 and 101 +/- 37%, respectively. Administration of IL-5 but not SP induced a significant increase in the number of eosinophils (67 +/- 22%) and eosinophil peroxidase (EPO) activity (94 +/- 33%) in BAL cells. The simultaneous administration of IL-5 and SP did not potentiate the hyperreactivity and eosinophilia observed with IL-5 alone. These data suggest that IL-5 is important in the recruitment of eosinophils, whereas both IL-5 and substance P are involved in the induction of airway hyperreactivity.

Potentiation by viral respiratory infection of ovalbumin-induced guinea-pig tracheal hyperresponsiveness: role for tachykinins.

1. We investigated whether virus-induced airway hyperresponsiveness in guinea-pigs could be modulated by pretreatment with capsaicin and whether viral respiratory infections could potentiate ovalbumin-aerosol-induced tracheal hyperresponsiveness. 2. Animals were inoculated intratracheally with bovine parainfluenza-3 virus or control medium 7 days after treatment with capsaicin (50 mg kg-1, s.c.). Four days after inoculation, tracheal contractions were measured to increasing concentrations of substance P, histamine and the cholinoceptor agonist, arecoline. 3. In tracheae from virus-infected guinea-pigs, contractions in response to substance P, histamine and arecoline were significantly enhanced (P < 0.01) by 144%, 46% and 77%, respectively. Capsaicin pretreatment inhibited the hyperresponsiveness to substance P partly (62%) and to histamine and arecoline completely. 4. In another series of experiments animals were first sensitized with ovalbumin (20 mg kg-1, i.p.). After 14 days animals were exposed to either saline or ovalbumin aerosols for 8 days. After 4 aerosol exposures (4 days) animals were inoculated with either parainfluenza-3 virus or control medium. One day after the last ovalbumin aerosol, tracheal contraction in response to increasing concentrations of substance P, histamine and arecoline was measured. 5. Tracheae from ovalbumin-aerosol-exposed control inoculated animals showed a similar degree of airway hyperresponsiveness to saline-aerosol-exposed virus-treated guinea-pigs. Virus inoculation of ovalbumin-treated animals significantly potentiated the tracheal contractions to substance P compared to either of the treatments alone. The contractions in response to histamine and arecoline were only slightly enhanced. 6. In conclusion, sensory nerves and/or tachykinins are involved in virus-induced airway hyperresponsivenessin guinea-pigs and viral respiratory infections can potentiate the increase in tracheal responsiveness to bronchoconstrictor agonists after ovalbumin exposure.

13-Hydroxy-linoleic acid induces airway hyperresponsiveness to histamine and methacholine in guinea pigs in vivo.

The influence of 13-hydroxy-linoleic acid (13-HODE) on the pulmonary resistance and dynamic compliance of guinea pigs in vivo was determined. Intravenously administered histamine and methacholine caused dose-dependent increases in pulmonary resistance and dose-dependent decreases in dynamic compliance in anesthetized, spontaneously breathing guinea pigs. Inhalation of an aerosol containing 13-HODE (10 mumol/L) enhanced the increases in pulmonary resistance observed after administration of histamine or methacholine when compared with the respective control animals. The effect of 13-HODE on the increase in pulmonary resistance after administration of histamine was dose-dependent. An enhancement in the pulmonary resistance was already measured after treatment of guinea pigs with aerosols of solutions containing 0.1 mumol/L 13-HODE when compared with that of control animals. In contrast, the changes in dynamic compliance were not affected by 13-HODE. These results indicate that 13-HODE may play an important role in the induction of airway hyperresponsiveness in vivo when it is produced or released in significant amounts in the airways.

Antibody to interleukin-5 inhibits virus-induced airway hyperresponsiveness to histamine in guinea pigs.

In humans, respiratory viral infections lead to increased airway responsiveness and exacerbations of asthma. In the present study, the role of interleukin-5 (IL-5) in virus-induced airway hyperresponsiveness and inflammation was examined in guinea pigs. In animals treated with control antibody, parainfluenza-3 virus significantly potentiated (219%) the histamine-induced increase in lung resistance compared with vehicle treatment. In addition, viral infection significantly increased (130 to 450%) the responsiveness of isolated tracheal segments to histamine in animals treated with control antibody. In guinea pigs treated with control antibody, the numbers of eosinophils (226%), neutrophils (1,380%), and monocytes (626%) in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid were significantly increased after viral infection. The level of major basic protein in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid was not altered after viral infection. In addition, electron microscopic examination of eosinophils in airway tissue and alveolar lumen did not point to increased degranulation after viral infection. In guinea pigs treated with antibody to IL-5 the virus-induced airway hyperresponsiveness to histamine both in vivo and in vitro was almost completely inhibited. In guinea pigs treated with anti-IL-5, viral infection significantly increased the numbers of eosinophils (234%), neutrophils (1,255%), and monocytes (617%) in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid. These data suggest that IL-5 plays an important role in airway hyperresponsiveness to histamine but not in the infiltration of eosinophils after respiratory viral infection.

Virus-induced airway hyperresponsiveness in guinea pigs is related to a deficiency in nitric oxide.

Intratracheal inoculation of parainfluenza type 3 virus to guinea pigs induces a marked increase in airway responsiveness in vivo and in vitro. In spontaneously breathing anesthetized guinea pigs inhalation of an aerosol containing the nitric oxide (NO) precursor L-arginine (2.0 mM) completely prevented the virus-induced airway hyperresponsiveness to histamine. In addition, perfusion of L-arginine (200 microM) or the direct NO-donor S-nitroso-N-acetyl-penicillamine (SNAP, 1 microM) through the lumen of tracheal tubes from infected animals prevented the increase in airway responsiveness to histamine or the cholinoceptor agonist methacholine. The NO synthase inhibitor N omega-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester (L-NAME, 120 microM) did not further increase the virus-induced airway hyperresponsiveness. In additional experiments, NO was measured with an Iso-NO nitric oxide meter and sensor. Stimulation of control tissues in vitro with histamine (10(-3) M) resulted in a contraction with a simultaneous release of NO (44.5 +/- 5.4 nM). The release of NO was markedly reduced by 75% (P < 0.01, 11.4 +/- 3.1 nM) in tracheas from virus-infected animals that demonstrated enhanced contractile responses. Preincubation of tissues from virus-treated guinea pigs with L-arginine (200 microM) completely prevented the enhanced contraction and simultaneously returned the NO production to control values (51.2 +/- 3.4 nM). An NO deficiency might be causally related to the development of airway hyperresponsiveness after a viral respiratory infection.

Nitric oxide synthesis inhibitors induce airway hyperresponsiveness in the guinea pig in vivo and in vitro. Role of the epithelium.

The administration by aerosol of the nitric oxide (NO) synthesis inhibitors, N omega-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester (L-NAME) or Ng-monomethyl-L-arginine (L-NMMA), to spontaneously breathing anesthetized guinea pigs resulted in a significant enhancement of lung resistance (RL) after increasing intravenous doses of histamine. The maximal response was increased (p < 0.01) by 126% (L-NAME) and 282% (L-NMMA) compared with the control groups. This effect was inhibited by giving an aerosol of the NO precursor L-arginine (L-Arg) but not by its inactive enantiomer D-arginine (D-Arg). Perfusion through the lumen of guinea pig tracheal tubes in vitro with nitric oxide synthesis inhibitors (120 microM) resulted in a significant increase in basal tone, suggesting a role for NO in the maintenance of basal tone. In addition, the histamine concentration-response curve was significantly shifted upward: the maximal response was increased (p < 0.01) by 335% (L-NAME) and 250% (L-NMMA) compared with the control group. This effect was concentration dependently inhibited by coincubation with L-Arg (120, 200, and 400 microM), but not with D-Arg (200 microM). Furthermore, removal of the epithelium resulted in an upward shift in the histamine concentration-response curve: the maximal response was increased by 185%. However, incubation with L-NAME did not further increase tracheal responsiveness to histamine, but addition of L-Arg (360 microM), when a plateau was reached, relaxed the tissues to control values. Nitric oxide synthesis inhibition did not change the responsiveness of intact tissues in vitro after intraluminal stimulation with leukotriene D4, serotonin, or the cholinergic agonist arecoline.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Virus-induced airway inflammation and hyperresponsiveness in the guinea-pig is inhibited by levodropropizine.

Intratracheal Parainfluenza type 3 (PI-3) virus inoculation of guinea pigs leads to a non-specific airway hyperresponsiveness in vivo and in vitro which coincides with a significant increase in the number of inflammatory cells in the broncho-alveolar lavage fluid (90% increase, 4 days after inoculation). The activity of the bronchoalveolar cells, as measured by the chemiluminescence production of infected animals is significantly diminished (34.2%, 4 days after inoculation) after renewed stimulation with PI-3 virus in vitro as compared to the chemiluminescence production by bronchoalveolar cells obtained from control guinea pigs. Pretreatment of the guinea-pigs with the antitussive agent levodropropizine, administered intra-peritoneally twice a day for five successive days at a dose of 10 mg/kg, prevents the virus-induced airway hyperresponsiveness in vivo and in vitro, and inhibits the influx of broncho-alveolar cells. Levodropropizine at a dose of 1 mg/kg did not modulate these responses. Further, the decrease in chemiluminescence production of broncho-alveolar cells obtained from virus-infected animals after PI-3 virus stimulation in vitro was inhibited by levodropropizine (10 mg/kg). These data demonstrate the ability of levodropropizine to counteract the hyperresponsiveness phenomenon and the associated inflammatory event induced by PI-3 virus, an effect which may be due to its capacity to act on the peptidergic system or may be due to the anti-allergic/bronchoconstrictor property of this compound.

Modulation of guinea pig airway reactivity by the linoleic acid metabolite 13-hydroxy-octadecadienoic acid (13-HODE).

The influence of the linoleic acid metabolite 13-hydroxy-octadecadienoic acid (13-HODE) on guinea pig tracheal reactivity to both contractile and relaxant agonists was investigated in vitro. 13-HODE induced an increased contraction of tracheal rings to histamine, whereas methacholine responsiveness was not significantly affected. Relaxant responses to isoprenaline and prostaglandin E2 were not influenced either.

Epithelium-derived linoleic acid metabolites modulate airway smooth muscle function.

Cultured epithelial cells obtained from guinea pig tracheal preparations metabolized arachidonic acid into 5- and 15-hydroxy-eicosatetraenoic acid and into the prostaglandins E2 and F2 alpha. Linoleic acid was converted by the epithelial cells into 9-hydroxy-octadecadienoic acid (9-HODE) and smaller amounts of 13-HODE. It was further investigated whether linoleic acid metabolites are of importance for the regulation of airway smooth muscle function. 13-HODE caused an increase of maximal contraction of tracheal rings to histamine, while 9-HODE had no effect.